0 The History of the Costume

Historians studying the evolution of the modern costume mutually date its origins to the 1490's. It is important to note, however, that before this time clothing existed mainly for the purpose of protection from injuries and natural elements. As society continued to advance costume became an expression of wealth, reputation or profession. It was then that more emphasis on both art and the artistic ability to make clothes that to distinguish people into classes.

It's not that decoration didn't exist before then. It was just not as widespread. Evidence from the Stone Age period revealed that cavemen wore leather skirts decorated with patterns made of pigments or perforations. So in studying the history of the costume it makes sense to start back then and follow through to the Rococo era.

Ancient Egyptian costumes were colorfully adorned with precious gems and jewels. Because of the heat of the desert, costumes were designed with comfort in mind. Regardless of gender, clothing was made of linen which was bleached in the sun to attain a brilliant white color that became very popular among the wealthy. Very few clothing items were made from wool, and only during the Christian era was cotton cloth introduced.

Ancient Greek costumes and clothing, though more voluminous, were simple and practical like the Egyptians'. In the winter they wore clothes made of wool, whilst in the summer they donned linen. The primary garment of clothing was the Chiton, an all-over body garment made from a large rectangle of cloth wrapped once around the body. The men wore these with tunics, a knee length t-shirt made of wool or linen. Footwear came in the form of leather sandals. The "Dark Age" of Greece era that followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization brought with it bell-shaped skirts and tightly fitted bodices.

Ancient Roman costumes were made of wool. Sewing needles then were coarse and unwieldy, resulting in very basic garments. Men basically had two items of clothing, the tunica and the toga. Unlike the Greek's long sleeved tunic, the tunica was short sleeved. The toga was typically worn in public. Both these items were worn differently by various people in society to distinguish levels of authority.

Medieval costuming began with the fall of the Roman Empire in AD 476 and ran through to the late medieval times of the 13th century. At the beginning the tunic was still a major form of dress, but was soon replaced by breeches and mid thigh high hose. Cloths were adorned with fine jewels, embroidery and fur trimmings.

In this era costume and dress took on a special meaning as defined by the aristocracy. In the 14th century it was characterized by short upper garments among men and tight-fitting dresses among the women. From then on there was a greater trend towards high fashion and more extravagant dress, perhaps resulting from increased exports from the East in the wake of The Crusades, increased production and improved quality of textiles in the West, and the increasing wealth of the rising urban tradesman class.

The Renaissance era coincided with a sudden increase in inherited personal wealth of the survivors of the Black Plague (1350-1400) and the emergence of significant Italian influence. Costume was led by nobility, who dressed in elaborate and brightly colored robes and gowns embellished with furs and elaborate belts. Wigs were popular and crafted from peasant's hair. Ladies began to wear more revealing clothes with low necklines, no longer covered their hair with hoods but styled it instead, and used make-up. Where color was restricted before, by mid 1500 garments were sewn with richly colored fabric. Men did not just wear long garments over hose, but actual trousers with stockings. It is during this time that the beret also came into existence.

In 1600 Baroque costumes, the influences began in Italy and spread to most of Europe. After Harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood in 1628, it was feared that tight garments might restrict blood-flow causing various ailments. Thus began an era that saw more loose-fitting and casual garments introduced for both sexes. Later large feathered hats and embroidered plumes became popular, as did highly-impractical large, soft-leather boots. Fashion was evocative of the Elizabethan style. Elbow sleeves, overskirts with trains at the back of floor length hoop skirts (also called panniers), ribbon ties, and lace cuffs for women were popular. Men were not left out in the lace department either. It was on their jackets and breeches alike. In addition they wore long coats with braided front panels buttoned from neck to hemline. Breeches were high, at or just above the knee, and fine hose was worn underneath. This attire lasted until 1715.

With the turn of the 18th century Rococo costumes emerged in France. They were opulent, graceful, playful and light, characteristic of the French culture at the time. Fabric colors were brighter (not too brilliant) as compared to those of the darker Baroque style. Solid colors were as popular as were floral motifs and stripes. The panniers with rich trimmings were the norm, and it was common for ladies to use makeup and perfume. The often had their hair powdered, coiffed and decorated with a small bonnet, flowers, jewelry, or bows. Men's costume hardly transformed during this time. They still wore breeches and waistcoats, which with time became briefer until they finally only reached the hips and were buttoned only in the stomach region.

Thus modern costume is not modern at all, but has developed over several centuries. From leather hides and skins to tunics of the medieval Byzantine era, to the exaggerated motion of the Baroque style up to the more subtle and soft French Rococo. It just goes to show that time itself is a manufacturer of new fashion styles borrowing from each other, some lasting longer than others. It is from these times that modern costumes of the 19th and 20th century have emerged.

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0 The Discovery, Creation and Uses of Electromagnets

Most people are not aware of the many applications electromagnets have in our modern day life. Though we may be awed to see a car being lifted, we may not realize there are much smaller applications that make our life easier and more productive, all thanks to a few ingenious engineers and scientist who made this great discovery just over two centuries ago.

How the Electro Magnet was invented

In 1820 a Danish physicist named Hans Christian Oerstead discovered there was a relationship between magnetism and electricity, concluding that electricity had the ability to create a magnetic field. Using this theory, three years later British Scientist William Sturgeon created the first electromagnet out of a simple horseshoe shaped core with copper wire wound around. This crude device became magnetized when current was run through it and demagnetized when the electricity was switched off. The only drawback was that the magnet was not particularly strong as the copper wire used to create the electromagnet was not insulated and therefore could not be very tightly wound around the core without short circuiting.

Four years later an American scientist named Joseph Henry found a way to overcome this problem by insulating the copper wires with silk thread, enabling the wires to be wound closer together. This simple advancement created a much stronger magnetic force capable of lifting over 2000 pounds when the electric current was switched on.

Making an Electromagnet

The principle of an electromagnet remains fairly simple -a core with magnetic properties such as iron with a conducting wire wound around it. At this stage the atoms within the iron are aligned in different directions, canceling the magnetic effects. However, when an electric source is connected to the wire and switched on the wire develops a magnetic field around the core, aligning the atoms in the core and amplifying the magnetic field.

At its essence, a magnet is created using electricity combined with a conducting wire and core. The minute the electric current is switched off the magnetic field disappears and the components return to a neutral state. The ability to turn an electromagnet on and off is a great benefit and one of the reasons they have so many industrial applications.

Modern Day uses for Electromagnets

The engineering, mining, and manufacturing industries use electromagnets for many applications, most commonly to hoist containers and freight. At the more individual level, speakers in your stereo, television, and even doorbell use electromagnets. Perhaps the most impressive applications can be seen in Germany and Japan with the maglev trains -high speed trains that travel up to 350 miles per hour, courtesy of electromagnets. Amazingly these trains actually levitate above the tracks because of an electromagnetic field. And, because there are no wheels and therefore no friction the trains run more efficiently and at far greater speeds than normal trains.

Advanced applications of Electromagnets

As the field has become more specialized, different types of electromagnets have been developed for advanced applications. Used in a wide variety of industrial applications, common flat faced electromagnets are used to hoist objects that have a similar smooth flat surface. Another common type is a polar electromagnet, characterized by two widely spaced poles that form a magnetic field, allowing objects with uneven surfaces to be lifted. Scientific applications use electromagnets in research labs for micro engineering and precision handling of materials and delicate processes. Additionally, different core materials and configurations enable engineers to vary the strength of the electromagnets, which allows for further specialized applications.

Electromagnetism is a fascinating property that modern engineering will continue to find more uses for. As additional applications develop, Oerstead, Sturgeon, and Henry can be thanked for the core principle that after more than two hundred years still remains the same. What would life be like without that stereo in your car?

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0 The Real History of Halloween

Two thousand years ago, in the region that is now Ireland, the United Kingdom and northern France, the ancient Celts celebrated the end of their summer harvest and the beginning of their new year on November 1. This observance also marked the beginning of their winter season, a time the Celts closely associated with death. They believed that on the previous night, October 31, the boundaries between the dead and the living became blurred, allowing the spirits of the dead to roam the earth. The Celts called this night Samhain, a night where mischievous spirits would cause trouble for the living. During this night, Celtic priests known as Druids gathered to build huge sacred bonfires upon which they sacrificed crops and animals to their deities. The Druids would then make predictions about the future to comfort a people facing the uncertainties of a long, dreary winter. Throughout the land, the Celts wore masks consisting of animal heads and skins, and they, too, attempted to predict each other's futures. After the celebration, the people relit their hearths with fire from the sacred bonfires and prepared for the winter.

By 43 A.D., The Romans had conquered most of the Celtic territory. During their 400-year occupation, they combined a couple of their own celebrations with the traditional Samhain observance. They celebrated the first festival, known as Feralia, near the end of October to commemorate the passing of the dead. Their second festival honored Pomona, the Roman goddess of fruit and trees. The symbol for Pomona was the apple, a fruit that eventually became incorporated into the Samhain celebrations and is probably the origin of the Halloween practice of bobbing for apples.

During the 800s, Christianity had spread throughout the Celtic lands. In a probable attempt to replace the Celtic observance of the dead, Pope Boniface IV appointed November 1 as All Saints Day, a day to honor the Christian saints and martyrs. The night before All Saints Day was no longer called Samhain, but All Hallowmas (from the Middle English Alholowmesse which means All Saints Day); this night was also referred to as the more familiar All Hallows Eve. By the year 1000, the Catholic Church designated November 2 as "All Souls Day"; a day to honor all of the dead. Although called a different name, All Souls Day basically incorporated many of the Samhain observances, including building bonfires and wearing masks. In accordance with the Church's influence, people dressed in costumes depicting saints, angels or devils. Eventually all three celebrations - All Hallows Eve, All Saints Day and All Souls Day - became known as Hallowmas.

Halloween customs arrived on American shores in varied forms via the European immigrants who settled in the colonies. However, the strict Puritan beliefs limited how the customs were practiced. Eventually, as the beliefs and customs of the immigrants merged together, also influenced by the customs of Native Americans, Halloween became more "Americanized". Initial celebrations included public events such as "play parties" that celebrated the harvest. During these celebrations, neighbors would tell tales of the dead and try to predict each other's fortunes - similar to the Celts centuries before them. Unlike those earlier observances, the American celebrations also included singing and dancing that added a measure of frivolity to the holiday.

By the second half of the nineteenth century, new immigrants, particularly Irish immigrants fleeing the great potato famine, helped to popularize Halloween on a national level. Following some English and Irish traditions, neighbors would dress up in costumes and go from house to house asking for money or food; this became the forerunner of the "trick-or-treat" tradition. On Halloween night, young unmarried women believed that they could divine the identity of their future husband through tricks with yarn, mirrors and apple parings.

At the beginning of the 20th century, newspapers and community leaders, fearing that Halloween had become too frightening for young children, requested that parents take the focus off the superstitions surrounding the holiday. The tradition of "trick-or-treat" actually disappeared for awhile. However, between the 1920s and the 1950s, the emphasis on the eerie was revived and tales of ghosts and witchcraft abounded. Pranks became standard as trick-and-treating was reinstituted, focusing more on the young than adults. Children (and adults, as well) dressed in costumes depicting popular characters. To stave off any mischief, families offered treats, including candies, to the neighborhood children making the holiday rounds. This new candied tradition continued to grow, and now Halloween is the country's second largest commercial holiday.

Although the Samhain observance as once practiced no longer exists, the ghosts from its Celtic past still linger in present day traditions and will probably continue to do so for centuries to come.

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Costume Alibi is a leading online retailer in the US of adult costumes and masks, childrens costumes and more. Visit online today for their complete line and have some fun!

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0 The History of the Camera

Have you ever thought about how the tiny, one click, instant-picture-delivery camera in your hand started out? The history of the camera travels back through the centuries to the 4th century BC, when Greek philosophers began developing the basic principles of optics.

Aristotle (and in the 5th century BC, Chinese philosopher Mo Ti), became curious, as all philosophers do. He started asking questions like, "Why does sunlight, when passing through quadrilaterals like wickerwork holes, make a round image? Why not an angled image instead?" These questions, which had no answer at the time, led to studying optics. The study of optics down through the years eventually led to the pinhole camera.

Leonardo da Vinci, using it to study perspective, gave a detailed description of the pinhole camera in 1485. The earliest known depiction of the pinhole camera was published in 1545 by Gemma Frisius, a known German physicist and mathematician. Later, in the 17th century, Johannes Kepler watched sunspots through the pinhole camera. While describing his experience, he coined the term "camera obscura".

The first camera obscura, grandfather of all cameras, was nothing more than a room with a hole in it. The sun shown through the hole and an image was projected onto the wall, with the size of the image depending on how far away the hole was from the opposite wall. This marvel of past technology grew to become a portable instrument with a converging lens, used as a drawing aid.

In 1827, while enjoying a nice summer day, Joseph Nicephore Niepce took the first photographic image. He coated a metal plate with bitumen, placed an engraving on it and exposed it to light. An image appeared once he placed the plate in a solvent. It took eight hours of exposure and the picture faded away soon after, but it was a beginning. A dozen years later, Louis Daguerre managed to reduce the exposure to less than half an hour and keep the image.

Putting two and two together, Niepce and Daguerre became partners, working to improve this fantastic process. In 1839, after Niepce's death, Daguerre created a more effective method, the daguerreotype, which quickly rose in popularity. In fact, over seventy daguerreotype studios emerged in the Big Apple alone within the first ten years.

Shortly after the daguerreotype, the camera's history reached an overwhelming "Age of Invention".

- Henry Fox Talbot, Daguerre's contemporary, perfected the calotype process in 1841.

- Fredrick Scoff Archer offered the world the wet plate negative in 1851.

- In 1856, Hamilton Smith patented the tintype.

- 1879 brought the dry plate, a process that no longer required portable darkrooms, making hand-held cameras possible.

By 1883, less than fifty years after the invention of the daguerreotype, cameras had evolved into hand-held boxes and technicians were doing the developing. Only one thing was left to really invent - film.

George Eastman, an avid photographer, invented photographic film, announcing the invention in 1883. In 1888, he founded the Eastman Kodak company and sent out the first Kodak camera able to use his film. Mass production of the box camera became a reality.

Between 1888 and 1948, inventors began working on various ways to expose photographs to light. Flashlight powder, or Blitzlictpulver, was invented in 1887 by Adolf Miethe and Johannes Gaedicke in Germany. An Austrian, paul Vierkotter, invented the first modern flashbulb while Frederick Charles Luther Wratten was busy founding the first photographic supply business and inventing the first panchromatic plates in England. His photographic filters, the Wratten Filters, are his most well known invention.

During this time, the development of photographs was a long, tedious process. It took time; shortening the development process became the aim of many inventors. However, it was Edwin Herbert Land, an American inventor and physicist, who invented instant photography. His creation developed and printed photos in one step. In 1948, the first of many Polaroid cameras became a public commodity.

The first digital camera was demonstrated by Canon in 1984, Pixar introduced the digital imaging processor in 1985, and Fuji brought us the disposable camera in 1986. Finally, the photo CD by Eastman Kodak came out in 1990.

Since then, cameras have only gotten more compact and more versatile. There are cameras so small they can fit in your hand and cameras that turn into video recorders at the push of a button.

So, the next time you pick up one of those tiny cameras, take a moment to remember its history, the inventors, and everything that went into making our photographs as instant as they are. The sheer amount of history might even make that camera weigh just a little more!

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0 Diverse Varieties of Fossils

Published by Tele.Tabisi on August 9th 2011 and viewed times  

Forms of life have been present on the earth for prior one billion yrs. All the analyze of the past living is recognized as Paleontology. It might be generated through the use of fossils. One particular fossil, generally, may possibly be identified as the perceptible proof of this existence associated with a primitive creature. Therefore, fossils serve as the way meant for research with all the fundamental material is accessible within sedimentary stones.

Compressed fossils

They're perhaps just about the most frequent type of fossil. Those fossils are usually produced as the effect of creatures or even the parts inside sediments. Typically the buried pieces grow to be smooth due to compression or maybe tension in the sediments. Sandstone, soil in addition to volcanic ash are actually a number of the components that may bring about such compression. This sort of fossils occur within the type of any carboniferous layer between any sediments and they also usually do not display constitutionnel characteristics of the cellular material preserved. These fossils are widely-used to check that outside morphology of plant life.

Impressed types of fossil remains Most of these fossils are just images from the living thing upon rocks. For this reason they just do not incorporate natural and organic materials. Impression shaped inside fine as well as soft elements display far better outcomes. They appear abundantly within clay-based remains. They're really advantageous for review associated with the outer characteristics of different components.

Organs of nearly rounded structure are recognised as coal ball. Many of the fossils present in the coal develop in that style. These are created by way of infiltrating of calcium mineral , the mineral magnesium , and so forth., in buried segments.

Sometimes stones have a structure of certain plant or perhaps wildlife for the duration of their particular structure and provide some sort of illusion of the fossils. These specimens tend to be identified as pseudo-type of fossils.

Actual remnants -- These kinds of fossils are usually of somewhat younger time. This overall decomposition has become avoidable due to very low temps and shortage of air flow.

Several other usual sorts - They're the commonest variety of fossils, perfect for analysis connected with structure of an body. In these fossils, outside image of a creature will be preserved, nevertheless the internal composition is normally ruined. Deposition of rock happens in form of very hard cover across the entire body.

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0 Replication Monitor Directory synchronization options

Published by Yanyan on July 24th 2011 and viewed times  

Icons enable you to determine replication status at a glance. A regular site icon represents a CompTIA A+ certification site. A regular server icon represents a monitored server. If the monitored server is a global catalog server, the server icon appears with a globe to the upper right. A book icon is used to represent directory partitions.

Replication partners appear under directory partitions. If the replication partner is a direct replication partner and the last replication attempt was successful, an icon representing two domain controllers on a network is used. If the replication partner is a direct replication partner and the last replication attempt failed, an icon representing two domain controllers on a network with a red "X" is used. If the replication partner is a bridgehead server, an icon representing a phone connection is used. If the last rep?lication attempt failed, an icon representing a phone connection with a red "X" is used to denote the failure. For transitive replication partners, a single computer icon is used.

For more information about Replmon.exe: Active Directory Replication Monitor, see Windows Support Tools Help.

Repadmin.exe: Replication Diagnostics Tool

The Replication Diagnostics Tool (Repadmin), a command-line tool, allows you to view the replication topology as seen from the perspective of each domain controller. In addition, Repadmin can be used in troubleshooting to create the A+ certificate replication topology manually (although in normal practice this should not be necessary), to force replication events between domain controllers, and to view the replication metadata. You can also use Repadmin to see how up-to-date each domain controller is.

Note During the normal course of operations, there is no need to manually create the replication topology. Incorrect use of this tool might adversely impact the replication topology. The main use of this tool is to monitor replication so problems such as offline servers or unavail?able LAN/WAN connections can be identified.

Allows you to specify a command and the arguments that apply to it. For a list of commands and arguments, see Windows Support Tools Help.

Forces Repadmin to use an RPC session for network communications.

Forces Repadmin to use an LDAP session for network communications.

Allows you to specify an optional user as the administrator. If the user name is not specified, the credentials of the currently logged-on user are used.

Allows you to specify the password of the user specified by the security+ certification

. If the password is not specified, the credentials of the currently logged-on user are used.

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The Windows 7 certificate has been designed for professionals who analyze the business requirements. The autor devote herself to research the problems and knowledge of MCSE Certification.If you have any questions about MCSE,you can comments on the article the autor publiced.

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